The Lord of the Rings Essay Example for Free

The Lord of the Rings Essay The Lord Of The Rings: The Fellowship Of The Ring is no doubt one of the most successful films of all time. The main reason it is and the main reason of this essay is the contrast between the forces of good and evil. The division of good and evil is clear from the start of the film right to the very end. At the end it seems as though evil is dominating and threatening to triumph over good forever. Camera shots are used to show this contrast As soon as the film has begun there are long slow moving panning shots which show a vast area of the setting. This camera shot is often used in the film and are used to set the scene. The effect given by this particular camera angle is that the area is calm and peaceful. It is a place full of grass, trees, flowers etc. This suggests a world of innocence or good. Further on in the film, the evil comes into the picture. The camera shots used for evil areas or evil people are almost exactly opposite to those of the good parts of the film. Although the camera shots are still panning shots, rather than show a few slow moving camera angles, it shows many quicker moving shots. This helps to add the evil effect and to emphasise that the place is quicker in movement and it is no longer calm and peaceful. This happens very early on too. It happens when we first see the evil tower. The filmmaker also uses many low angle camera views. These angles are used to show a character or building seem more threatening, larger, imposing and/or powerful. This is shown as soon as the evil comes into the picture when the tower/castle is shown. It is dark and is taken from a low angle for the effect. It also happens a lot to Gandalf, the wizard, when he is around the hobbits. There are other camera angles used too that include high angle shots. These are obviously the opposite of low angle shots. They are used to show a person or building seem smaller and less threatening. An example could be when we see hobbits. Hobbits are very small creatures so high angle shots would be used here. Close-up and extreme close-up shots are used too. These are used to show facial expression. This is very often in he film. Probably every scene in the film has a close-up and extreme close-up shot. There are also double shots. This is when two people are shown in the picture and this shot is often used to show conversation. A good example of this is when Gandalf and Bilbo, the hobbit, are smoking the weed late at night. This is also very early on in the film.

Should Women Be Allowed to Play Against Men in Sports Essay Example for Free

Should Women Be Allowed to Play Against Men in Sports Essay Every sports fan hates to admit the fact that sports are simply business, but it is undeniable that sports are one of the most lucrative businesses in the U. S. Right now the market for womens professional sports is growing rapidly. The best way for womens sporting organizations to promote and sell this market is to align with previously established organizations such as the NBA, NCAA and the USOIC. Although joining with mens organizations is a difficult process that involves compromise, merging with these organizations helps to land big television contracts, gives greater publicity, and brings in endorsements, advertisers and investors. The lack of these benefits was among the key factors in the failure of the ABL. Inversely, these are the reasons for the successes of the WNBA and womens sports in the Olympics. Throughout the history of female athletics merging with male sports organizations has not always been a pleasant experience. In 1982 the AIAW merged with the NCAA, despite the NCAA fighting tooth and nail to try and find ways out of Title IX, an act of Congress that required Universities to provide equal funding for womens athletics. The NCAA did everything they could to stop the equal funding but finally gave in during the 1990s. Right now the NCAA embraces its womens sports programs and has had many women represented on the executive committee roster and even has a committee on womens athletics. Also, the NCAA has worked out television contracts with ESPN, FOX sports and CBS. This has lead to not only coverage of womens sports but publicity. Womens games are talked about on Sports Center and College Hoops Tonight everyday during the season. The addition of the womens to the Olympics did a lot more to promote commercial secures and the advancement of womens The Womens Olympic Games went out of business shortly after the Olympics allowed women to participate. Women lost a lot with this merger at first due to the fact that women were prohibited from many Olympic events that they could have participated in as part of the Womens Olympics. These restrictions werent lifted until 1984. However in the long run co-ed Olympics are beneficial for womens sports. At the 2002 Olympics at Salt Lake City there was only two sports that USA women did not compete in, ski jumping and the Nordic combined. Female athletes were well represented even though there were a few more male athletes in some events and the television air time was almost equal for both sexes. The ABL never stood a chance against the WNBA. The ABL a independent womens league and the WNBA, a subsidiary of the NBA, played a big part in putting the ABL, a separate womens basketball league out of business. The WNBA could afford to pay players less because the players could receive a lot more publicity and endorsement playing in the WNBA. The ABL made huge mistakes right off the bat. First off there season was from October to March right and competing with the NBA and the college basketball season. Thus it was harder to land large television contracts. The could only get contracts on lower budget cable stations the Black Entertainment Television and some but not much regional coverage on the Sports Channel ( now Fox Sports). In their third and final year they did not renew the contact with BET and Fox Sports would show 16 games, a 61% decrease of games seen on TV . However they did work out a deal with CBS that would show two ABL playoff games. League went under before they could even finish the season. With the help of the NBA the WNBA was able to avoid costly mistakes while using the pervious existing structure of the NBA and its capital to increase the popularity of the WNBA and ensure some financial security. The WNBA had NBA marketers and promoters and big television contracts on NBC, Lifetime and ESPN. The WNBA just this season will be showing a lot more games the ever before. The LA Sparks will receive 22 of their 33 games televised nationally More importantly the WNBA had money behind it, commercial on NBC billboards all over there home cities and their marquee players such as Lisa Leslies were in shoe commercials. The market for womens sports is growing rapidly and a big part of this success is because of these mergers with established organization. These mergers of womens and mens sports can do a lot more for the promotion and the TV coverage then any newly formed league male or female, an example of the is the WNBA and the Olympics. Although the history of these mergers has had a shaky history in the past those days are over. There is a lot of money to be made on womens sports if promoted right and if leagues like the WNBA fail it would be a major set back for womens basketball so why not have the NBA and all its promoter TV contracts and executive expertise behind them.

NSAID Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

NSAID Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs 1. Introduction 1.1 Ibuprofen, a Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drug (NSAID) Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are one of the most commonly used and therapeutically effective groups of drugs in the medicinal field. They suppress inflammation in a similar way as steroids. They are also better than steroids in such a way that they cause less side effects of sedation, addiction and respiratory depression. NSAIDs act by inhibiting cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, COX-1 and COX-2. This type of inhibition results in reduced productions of precursors such as thromboxane, prostaglandin and leukotriene that are involved in the inflammatory pathways. NSAIDs are poorly water-soluble drugs (Hassan et al., 2009). Often, they are microencapsulated using the emulsion solvent diffusion method (Leo et al., 2000) to modify and retard drug release from pharmaceutical dosage form. Further, encapsulation of NSAIDs into polymeric nanoparticles, followed by their encapsulation into polymeric microparticles has proved to reduce the release rate and suppress the undesired initial burst. For instance, Ibuprofen-loaded PCL (Poly-epsilon-caprolactone) nanoparticles inside ethylcellulose/Eudragit RS polymeric microparticles was successfully encapsulated, which effectively exhibited a control of both the release rate and burst effect (Hassan et al., 2009; Socha et al., 2007). Ibuprofen, an NSAID, was selected as the model drug in this study. The low solubility (0.03-2.5mg/ml) (Khang et al., 2007) and short plasma half-life of approximately 2 hours of Ibuprofen makes it an ideal choice to prepare a controlled release dosage form. Ibuprofen is commonly used to relieve the symptoms of mild and moderate pain and inflammation in conditions such as migraine, dental pain, dysmennorhea, headaches, back pain, muscular pain, rheumatic pain, cold and flu symptoms. Also, it is used to treat chronic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis in which a controlled release dosage form is desired for symptom relief (Leo et al., 2000). Although parenteral Ibuprofen formulation has been produced recently, there is no controlled release dosage form available in the pharmaceutical market. Considering that Ibuprofen is a anti-inflammatory agent used widely, this study of preparation of a biodegradable and controlled release parenteral Ibuprofen dosage form, based on nanoparticles will definitely of great interest. For example, the intraarticular administration of Ibuprofen would offer an effective management of chronic rheumatoid arthritis. Also, it will serve an alternative to corticosteroid administration to avoid the devastating side effects (Hassan et al., 2009; Fernandez-Carballido et al., 2004). Besides, two types of parenteral formulations of Ibuprofen are now available in the pharmaceutical market. One of them is Pedea which is used for the therapy of ductus arteriosus in preterm newborns (Hassan et al., 2009, Aranda and Thomas, 2006). Its use in human pre-mature newborns was also demonstrated to be able to improve the cerebral blood flow regulation and potentially offer some degree of neuroprotection (Aranda and Thomas, 2006). It is a normal aqueous solution dosage form which is injected into the bloodstream, allowing fast therapeutic activity. Another parenteral Ibuprofen formulation is marketed by Cumberland Pharmaceuticals recently– the injectable ibuprofen formulation named Caldolor which is used for the treatment of pain and fever. Caldolor has also proved to have the advantage of reducing pain and fever significantly within 30 minutes. Although rapid attainment of therapeutic effect can be achieved, the short plasma half-life of Ibuprofen would have resulted in frequent administration in order to maintain plasma therapeutic levels. For instance Caldolor needs to be administered intravenously every 6 hours in order to maintain efficient plasma therapeutic levels. Therefore, controlled drug delivery systems would be a better yet excellent alternative to multiple injections. And, in such case, polymeric nanoparticles will be the best candidate for parenteral drug delivery. This polymeric nanoparticulate drug delivery system would be potentially used to increase bioavailability, provide prolonged therapeutic plasma levels and reduce administration frequency. 1.2 Controlled Drug Delivery and Drug Targetting To deliver drugs from the administration site to the target site, a delivery system is needed as drugs could not deliver by themselves (Davis and Illum, 1998; Bala et al., 2004). An ideal drug delivery system will possess both the properties of targeting and controlling the drug release (Thassu et al., 2007). Targeting ensures high effectiveness of the drug and at the same time reduces the possible devastating side effects that may be experienced. This is particularly beneficial when dealing with drugs for instance, drugs used in cancer therapy to ensure that only affected cancer cells but not healthy cells are killed (Brannon-Peppas and Blanchette, 2004). The reduction of side effects can also be attained through controlled release dosing systems. This study will focus on the parenteral controlled-release dosage forms. 1.2.1 Rationale for Parenteral Controlled-release Drug Delivery Parenteral controlled-release dosage forms have been proved to be useful for treating disease (Kydonieus, 1992). However, there is no single controlled-release technology that has proved to be effective in treating disease because of the diversity of drug properties, dosing levels, treatment durations as well as patient acceptability and cost. Therefore, an excellent controlled release technology is needed to be selected for each drug and associated disease treatment. The distribution of drug in the body after parenteral administration well depends entirely on the physicochemical properties of the drug. Conventional drug delivery is typically illustrated by drug administered via bolus injection, in which the most of the therapeutic agents in the drug are released immediately after the administration, causing a rapid increase of the plasma drug concentration levels (Uhrich et al., 1999). Drug concentration is then seen to fluctuate between the side effect level and the minimum therapeutic level, resulting in alternate periods of toxicity and ineffectiveness (Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009). As a consequence, higher dosage drug is needed to be administered repeatedly to maintain the therapeutic drug concentration at steady state level. Problems, hence, arise as multiple injections are not favoured by most patients. Therefore, in order to improve efficacy, patient compliance and convenience, a controlled-release parenteral dosage forms that can last for longer period of time after a single administration will be more beneficial. This controlled release over an extended time is also of great benefits for drugs that are rapidly metabolized and eliminated from the body after administration. This is because controlled release maintains drug concentration at steady state level for a sufficient duration at the target sites, where the rate of drug release is equivalent to the rate of drug elimination, thus keeping the drug concentration within the ideal therapeutic window as well as avoiding substantial fluctuations. As a result, frequent injections can be avoided. 1.3 Nanotechnology for Controlled Drug Delivery In the endeavour to design a parenteral controlled release dosage form, a number of drug delivery systems, such as emulsions, micelles, liposomes and nanoparticles have been developed (Kydonieus, 1992; Hassan et al., 2009). In fact, injectable, biodegradable nanosphere products are the most recent technology developed for parenteral controlled-release dosage forms. This termed nanoparticulate drug delivery system, which comprises of colloidal particles of nanosize range, provides a suitable mean of delivering not only small molecular weight drugs but also macromolecules such as hormones, proteins, peptides and nucleic acids (Bala et al., 2004; Panyam and Labhasetwar, 2003). Furthermore, the nanoparticulate drug delivery system evidences the successful development of the nanotechnology. The prefix â€Å"nano† is derived from the Greek word dwarf (Thassu et al., 2007). One nanometer (nm) is equivalent to one-billionth of a meter. Materials in the nanometer size range can have substantial properties compared with the same materials at a larger size, for instance materials in the micrometer size range (Hans and Lowman, 2002). The term â€Å"nanotechnology† was coined in 1974 by Norio Taniguchi, a professor of the Tokyo Science University, Japan to describe materials in nanometers (Kydonieu, 1992). In recent years, nanotechnology has gained much attention that there has been an increasing investment trend from governments and private sector business in many parts of the world to expand research in nanoscale science and technology. Generally, nanotechnology means any technology performed on a nanoscale that involves both science and engineering (Bhushan, 2004). It encompasses the manufacture and application of biological, chemical and physical systems at scales that range from individual atoms or molecules to nanoscale dimensions. Also, it integrates the resulting nanostructures into larger systems (Bhushan, 2004). Controlled drug delivery nanotechnology has become one of the most advancing areas of science that contributes to human health care. This field of pharmaceutical technology has grown and expanded rapidly these days. And it is believed that such delivery system will definitely bring abundant advantages compared to conventional drug delivery system. 1.4 Natural and Synthetic Polymers in Pharmaceutical Systems Polymers are high molecular weight substances that are made up of repeating monomer units. In order to develop a successful nanoparticulate delivery system, it is essentially important to select an appropriate polymeric matrix. Polymers nanospheres employed to deliver drugs in a sustained release manner can be either biodegradable or non-biodegradable (Uhrich et al., 1999). The controlled release can be achieved by combining the biodegradable polymer with a drug so that the active agent is released from the system in a predesigned way. Despite the fact that controlled drug delivery has various advantages, the possible drawbacks cannot be overlooked: the undesirable by-products from degradation, potential toxicity or non-biocompatibility of the materials used, any surgery involved to remove or implant the system, the likehood of patient discomfort from the delivery device, and the higher cost involved compared with traditional pharmaceutical formulations (Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 200 9; Brannon-Peppas, 1997). Several polymers, including both natural and synthetic polymers have been investigated for formulating biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles. These include polylactide (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), which are biodegradable and biocompatible. Among these polymers, PLGA is the most commonly used due to its biodegradability, biocompatibility as well as flexible degradation kinetics (Sahana et al., 2007). In fact, PLGA has been approved by FDA (Food and Drug Administration) for a number of clinical applications (Bhardwaj et al., 2005) such as synthetic resorbable sutures, surgical clips and other surgical implants (Kydonieus, 2005). 1.4.1 Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) as Polymers PLGA is a copolymer of PLA and PGA. It is synthesised by co-polymerisation of two different monomers, the cyclic dimmers of glycolic acid and lactic acid. During polymerisation, successive monomers of both glycolic and lactic acid are linked together by ester bonds, producing a linear polyester of PLGA. Different forms of PLGA can, thus, be yielded by altering the mixing ratio of lactide to glycolide used in the polymerisation process. A basic insight of physicochemical and biological properties of the PLGA polymer is vital as it allows the study of the mechanism and rate of drug release from the nanoshperes. PLGA degrades in vivo by hydrolytic cleavage of the ester linkage in the presence of water (Bala et al., 2004; Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009). However, the degradation process of polymers is affected by a number of factors. The polymer nature (polydispersity and copolymer composition), the degree of crystallinity, the glass transition temperature of the polymer, organic solvents, type and concentration of stabiliser used are all the common factors (Bala et al., 2004). The degradation profile of nanoparticulate systems, on the other hand, relies on the hydrophilicity of the polymer. The more hydrophilic the polymer, the higher its rate of degradation (Bala et al., 2004; Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009). In fact, the hydrophilicity of the polymer is determined by the crystalline to armorphous ratio, that is consecutively affected by the composition of the copolymer (Bala et al., 2004). Owing to the fact that lactide is more hydrophobic than glycolide, PLGA copolymers with high content of lactide units will be less hydrophilic, thus experiencing slower degradation process. For this reason, the rate of degradation and release profile of PLGA can be modified easily by varying the ratio of lactide to glycolide (Sahana et al., 2007). It is noted that PLGA copolymer with composition of 50:50 ratio shows the fastest degradability rate about 1-2 months in both in vitro and in vivo conditions (Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009; Nair and Laurencin, 2007). Extensi ve investigations were then carried out on different forms of PLGA by changing the ratio of lactide to glycolide. The results showed that the PLGA copolymers of 65:35, 77:25, and 88:15 lactide/glycolide ratios have progressively longer in vivo degradation times, with the 88:15 one lasting about 5-6 months in vivo (Bala et al., 2004; Jain, 2000). During the preparation of PLGA loaded nanoparticles in this study, lactide-rich copolymers will be of great interest in order to formulate a nanosphere with controlled release properties. PLGA is undoubtedly the ideal choice of polymer selected to be used in designing a controlled release nanoparcticulate delivery system. Because of its biodegradability, no surgical procedures are needed to remove the system when the drugs are depleted. Besides, it is degraded in vivo, by random, nonenzymatic, hydrolytic cleavage of ester linkages to toxicologically safe by-products (the original monomers- lactic and glycolic acid) that are either excreted renally or elimininated as carbon dioxide gas and water via Krebs cycle (Bala et al., 2004; Galindo-Rodriguez et al., 2005). Furthermore, PLGA has a glass transition temperature above physiological temperature (45-55 °C) that provides it adequate strength to be formulated as a successful controlled drug delivery system (Bala et al., 2004). Because PLGA have proved to be biocompatible and to have extensive toxicological documentation, their approvals for use in fabricating nanospheres will be less costly and more straightforward th an approvals of new polymers for fabrication in the pharmaceutical industry. For this reason, PLGA copolymers are selected as the colloidal carrier for parenteral controlled-release dosage forms in this study. 1.4.2 Therapeutic Uses of PLGA Polymers in Contemporary Clinical Formulations The use of the PLGA polymer for the development of new parenteral controlled drug delivery dosage forms appears to be very promising. Nanospheres with various release patterns can be prepared by altering the polymer species, molecular weight or monomer mixing ratio. FDA has approved PLGA for a number of medical applications. For instance, Lupron Depot ®, a controlled release formulation for treatment of advanced prostate cancer, was the first PLGA product cleared by FDA (Bala et al., 2004). The effective dose this formulation, which contains leuprolide acetate encapsulated in biodegradable microspheres of 75:25 lactide/glycolide polymer, was reduced 1/4 – 1/8 of that required in the conventional drug formulation (Sahana et al., 2007). Another successful development of controlled drug delivery systems includes anticancer drug, Doxorubicin formulated into PLGA nanoparticles, that exhibited controlled release over 1 month (Bala et al., 2004). In the following research work, Ibu profen loaded PLGA nanoparticles are intended to be prepared with a view to possess the identical desired controlled release properties. 1.4.3 Preparation of PLGA loaded nanoparticles Several approaches have been proposed for the preparation of PLGA nanoparticles. However, the choice of preparation method well depends on the type of the polymer and drug used, the intended use as well as the duration of the treatment. The standard procedures of emulsion-diffusion evaporation, salting-out and nanoprecipitation method are all widely used to prepare PLGA particles in the nanosize range. The first step of these methods often involves emulsification of a solution of drug in a solution of organic polymer (Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009). The dispersion formed is then processed in accordance with one of the aforestated methods. During both emulsion-diffusion evaporation and salting out approaches, the polymer PLGA is dissolved in an organic solvent such as chlorinated solvent, dichloromethane and chloroform, tetrahydrofuran, acetone or ethyl acetate. The mixed organic solution of both polymer and drug is later mixed with an aqueous solution containing both stabiliser and emulsifying agents. The emulsion formed is then exposed to a high-energy source for example an ultrasonic device, homogenizer or colloid mill to form a stable oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion. The organic solvent is later evaporated under reduced pressure or continuous stirring, resulting in the formation of fine dispersion of nanoparticles containing therapeutic drugs. Factors such as homogeniser stirring rate, concentration of polymer, presence of surfactants and stabilisers will influence the size of the particles formed (Bala et al., 2004; Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009). Therefore, it is important to standardise these parameters in order to produce particles of desired size range. The nanoprecipitation method, on the other hand, is based on the interfacial deposition of a polymer following displacement of a semi-polar solvent miscible with water from a lipophilic solution (Bala et al., 2004; Govender et al., 1999). The PLGA polymer and drug are then dissolved in a semi-polar water-miscible solvent, either acetonitrile or ethanol, forming the organic phase. The organic phase is then mixed with an aqueous solution containing stabiliser and stirred magnetically at room temperature to allow rapid solvent evaporation. The nanoparticles are finally purified using ultracentrifugation, ultrafiltration, gas chromatography, dialysis procedures to remove stabiliser residues or any free drug. This purification process must be carefully carried out to avoid any loss of biologically active ingredients. 1.5 Aims and Objectives Realising the benefits and importance of controlled drug release in clinical applications, the objective of the present study is to prepare and characterise Ibuprofen loaded PLGA nanoparticles for parenteral delivery, with a view to prolong the ibuprofen blood residence time after injection. The objective will be achieved by the following specific aims: 1. Preparation of Ibuprofen loaded PLGA nanoparticles. 2. Characterization of the nanoparticles for size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency. References Aranda JV, Thomas R, 2006. Systemic review: Intravenous Ibuprofen in preterm newborns. Elsevier: Seminar in Perinatology. Bala I, Hariharan S, Ravi Kumar MNV, 2004. PLGA nanoparticles in drug delivery: The State of the Art: Critical Review in Therapeutic Drug Carrier Systems. 21(5), 387-422. Bhardwaj V, Hariharan S, Bala I, Lamprecht A, Kumar N, Panchagnula R, Ravi Kumar MNV, 2005. Pharmaceutical aspects of polymeric nanoparticles for oral delivery. Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology. 1, 1-23. Bhushan B, editor, 2004. Springer handbook of nanotechnology. New York: Springer. Brannon-Peppas L, Blanchette JO, 2004. Nanoparticle and targeted systems for cancer therapy. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 56, 1649-1659. Brannon-Peppas L, 1997. Polymers in controlled drug delivery. Medical Plastics and Biomaterials Magazine. Davis SS, Illum L, 1998. Drug delivery systems for challenging molecules. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 176, 1–8. Fernandez-Carballido A, Herrero-Vanrell R, Molina-Martinez IT, Pastoriza P, 2004. Biodegradable ibuprofen-loaded PLGA microspheres for intraarticular administration. Effect of Labrafil addition on release in vitro. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 279, 33-41. Govender T, Stolnik S, Garnett MC, Illum L, Davis SS, 1999. PLGA nanoparticles prepared by nanoprecipitation: drug loading and release studies of a water soluble drug. Journal of Control Release 1999. 57, 171–185. Hans ML, Lowman AM, 2002. Biodegradable nanoparticles for drug delivery and targeting. Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science. 6, 319-327. Hassan AS, Sapin A, Lamprecht A, Emond E, Ghazouani FE, Maincent P, 2009. Research paper: Composite microparticles with in vivo reduction of the burst release effect. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics. Jain RA, 2000. The manufacturing techniques of various drug loaded biodegradable poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) devices. Biomaterials. 21, 2475–2490. Jiang BB, Hu L, Gao CY, Shen JC, 2005. Ibuprofen-loaded nanoparticles prepared by a co-precipitation method and their release properties. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 304, 220-230. Khang G, ChanYang J, TaeKo J, SooPark J, SukKim M, Rhee JM, BangLee H, 2007. Preparation and characterisation of ibuprofen using self-emulsifying drug delivery system in vivo. Key Engineering Materials. 342-343, 541-544. Kydonieus A, editor, 1992. Treatise on controlled drug delivery. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Leo E, Forni F, Bernabei MT, 2000. Surface drug removal from ibuprofen-loaded PLA microspheres. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 196, 1–9. Nair LS, Laurencin CT, 2007. Biodegradable polymer as biomaterials. Progress in Polymer Science. 32, 762-798. Panyam J, Labhasetwar V, 2003. Biodegradable nanoparticles for drug and gene delivery to cells and tissue. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 55, 329–347. Sahana DK, Mittal G, Bhardwaj V, Ravi Kumar MNV, 2007. PLGA nanoparticles for oral delivery of hydrophobic drugs: Influence of organise solvent on nanoparticles formation and release behaviour in vitro and in vivo using Estradiol as a model drug. Wiley InterScience. Socha M, Hasan AS, Lamprecht A, Ghazouani FE, Sapin A, Hoffman M, Maincent P, Ubrich N, 2007. Effect of the microencapsulation of nanoparticles on the reduction of burst release. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 344, 53–61. Stevanovic M, Uskokovic D, 2009. Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-based Micro and Nanoparticles for the Controlled Drug Delivery of Vitamins. Current Nanoscience. 5, 00-00. Thassu D, Deleers M, Pathak Y, editors, 2007. Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems. Vol 166. New York: Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences. Uhrich KE, Cannizzaro SM, Langer RS, Shakesheff KM, 1999. Polymeric systems for controlled drug release. Chemical Reviews. 99, 3181-3198.

Clash of identity :: essays research papers

Clash of Identity The difference between Rodriguez’s struggle between identity and Angelou’s struggle is that, Angelou’s identity’s center of focus is her name, while Rodriguez’s identity seems to revolve around his â€Å"complexion†. Although they both wrote about the struggle with their own identity, the views and attitude of the two authors differ. In Richard Rodriguez’s essay â€Å"Complexion† and Maya Angelou’s essay â€Å"Mary† both authors illustrate some hardships they faced during their life, such as their experience with racism and prejudice. In spite of the fact that they are both faced with similar situations, the actuality that sets apart their characters is how they dealt with each of their situations. Rodriguez attitude about himself during his childhood was largely influenced by his family, especially his mother, â€Å"Dark skin was for my mother the most important symbol of a life of oppressive labor and poverty.†(Rodriguez. 451), people who worked in fields and construction sites spent most of their time under the sun, causing their â€Å"complexion† to darken, so it was assumed that a person with dark skin was a menial laborer. Rodriguez’s mother would commonly point out his dark complexion by comparison with the poor and the black, at one time she told Rodriguez, â€Å"You look like a negrito†¦ you won’t be satisfied till you end up looking like los pobres†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Rodriguez 447). His mother’s friends would also often talk of what a burden or a curse it was, to have dark skin, â€Å"†¦ it was a woman’s spoken concern: the fear of having a dark-skinned son or daughter.†(Rodriguez 449), Rodriguez is illustrating t hat in his culture, people preferred light skin children over dark skin, knowing that a light skinned child would not face as much prejudice a dark skinned child would growing up. In contrast, Margaret wasn’t ashamed of her skin, or being of different color, she was proud of her race and ethnicity, at the beginning she expresses her pride through her relatives accomplishment, â€Å"†¦my grandmother had owned the only Negro general merchandise store since the turn of the century.†(Maya 3), this she said to a Texas women, when asked about her hometown.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Rodriguez and Angelou both expressed their struggled in search for their own identity in their essay. Margaret’s identity was compromised when Margaret was called out of her original name. Margaret’s name was casually changed by Mrs. Cullinan, â€Å"That’s too long she’s Mary from now on†(Maya 6).

Education - Its Time to Break the Rules :: Free Essays Online

Education - It's Time to Break the Rules When he follows the guidelines of the assignment his writing is wonderful. Unfortunately, he rarely follows those guidelines which I concisely explain to the class. His writing is complete nonsense with no factual support, no structure and no resemblance to any of his classmateà ­s work! I know, I know. I tell him time and time again that there are certain rules that everyone must follow. Its just a part of life. I donà ­t know how he expects to get by in society that way. No one is above the rules. Its just the way the world works. We must break him of this habit before its too late!à ® Yes! you are absolutely correct! There is no place in our educational system for free thinkers like him! What kind of world would it be if everyone let their imagination run wild! Dear god, it would be total chaos! We can not let one student like that one get by or its the beginning of the end of our way of life.à ® He must be severely flogged and then subjected to a series of shock treatments to break him of his spirit and then make it clear to him that if any further outbreaks of spontaneous expression occur, he shall be punished accordingly.à ® This was a conversation between two of my high school teachers that I overheard. Actually , I imagined it, and, although it may sound somewhat extreme, I think it expresses some of goals of our present educational system. We are all force fed knowledge like it was brussel sprouts and some of us swallow it, although it tastes bad, while others spit it out. It seems like we spend a quarter of our lives in school in preparation to become law-abiding members of a society that is far from perfect. Why is it that so many kids hate to go to school? Has every generation since the beginning of time hated to learn? Is it human nature or could there be something wrong with the present state of education? Now I do not speak for everyone in my generation, but kids, in general, would rather be out having fun than in a classroom listening to a teacher. Even a good class with an exciting teacher does not beat swimming or a sunset or frolicking in the meadow or eating a banana split. Education - It's Time to Break the Rules :: Free Essays Online Education - It's Time to Break the Rules When he follows the guidelines of the assignment his writing is wonderful. Unfortunately, he rarely follows those guidelines which I concisely explain to the class. His writing is complete nonsense with no factual support, no structure and no resemblance to any of his classmateà ­s work! I know, I know. I tell him time and time again that there are certain rules that everyone must follow. Its just a part of life. I donà ­t know how he expects to get by in society that way. No one is above the rules. Its just the way the world works. We must break him of this habit before its too late!à ® Yes! you are absolutely correct! There is no place in our educational system for free thinkers like him! What kind of world would it be if everyone let their imagination run wild! Dear god, it would be total chaos! We can not let one student like that one get by or its the beginning of the end of our way of life.à ® He must be severely flogged and then subjected to a series of shock treatments to break him of his spirit and then make it clear to him that if any further outbreaks of spontaneous expression occur, he shall be punished accordingly.à ® This was a conversation between two of my high school teachers that I overheard. Actually , I imagined it, and, although it may sound somewhat extreme, I think it expresses some of goals of our present educational system. We are all force fed knowledge like it was brussel sprouts and some of us swallow it, although it tastes bad, while others spit it out. It seems like we spend a quarter of our lives in school in preparation to become law-abiding members of a society that is far from perfect. Why is it that so many kids hate to go to school? Has every generation since the beginning of time hated to learn? Is it human nature or could there be something wrong with the present state of education? Now I do not speak for everyone in my generation, but kids, in general, would rather be out having fun than in a classroom listening to a teacher. Even a good class with an exciting teacher does not beat swimming or a sunset or frolicking in the meadow or eating a banana split.

Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Their Advantages Essay -- Cars Energy HEV

Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Their Advantages 'The HEV [Hybrid Electric Vehicle] concept goes back to 1905. On November 23 of that year, American engineer H. Piper filed for a patent on a hybrid vehicle. Piper's design called for an electric motor to augment a gasoline engine'(1, pg 2) and thus, the HEV was born. Hybrid Electric Vehicles, otherwise known as HEVs are vehicles that 'combine the internal combustion engine of a conventional vehicle with the battery and electric motor of an electric vehicle'(2). In this day and age car manufactures are trying to out-compete one another in terms of car features and sales. Technology has come a long way since 1905 but the principle is still the same: to produce hybrid vehicles that not only can compete with standard vehicles in terms of price and available features, but that also offer better mileage and less pollution. One may understand why hybrid vehicles are a good choice, but one may not understand why more auto manufacturers have turned to hybrids instead of electric vehicles. 'HEVs do not share an electric vehicle's main drawback: limited range between chargings. The few thousand electric vehicles on the roads in the U.S' can travel only about 80 miles before their batteries need recharging, which can take anywhere from three to eight hours'(1, pg1). For those who do not wish to be constrained by having to charge up batteries and worry about mileage, HEVs are the next logical choice. There are two different types of hybrid vehicles: parallel and designated series. The following is a good description of each : ?In a series hybrid, the internal combustion engine drives a generator that charges the batteries, whic... ...ent as well. Hybrid vehicles emit significantly less pollutants than do standard cars and trucks and their fuel efficiency is also a positive aspect that can attract consumers who are interested in saving money. As technology advances and hybrid technologies becomes more efficient it seems that the HEV ?could be- - and in fact should be - - the car of the near future?(1). Sources: 1) Online version of Scientific American article, by Wouk, Victor. October 1997. Hybrid Electric Vehicles: http://www.sciam.com/1097issue/1097wouk.html 2) http://www.ott.doe.gov/hev/what.html 3) http://www.honda2001.com/models/2001/environment.html 4) http://prius.toyota.com/technology/hybrid.html 5) http://prius.toyota.com/green/index.html 6) http://www.epa.gov/autoemissions/ 7) http://www.ott.doe.gov/hev/concept.html

Industrial Production and Capitalism Drivers of Social Change

Industrial Production and Capitalism: Drivers of social change in history Ho Xin Qian Louise In this essay, I will illustrate why industrial production and capitalism were major causes of social change in history by stating three main arguments. Firstly, I put forth the case that industrial production and capitalism have changed the role and nature of markets in history. In doing this, I trace how the market has become the central system of social coordination via market instruments, encompassing even the elements of industry like land, labor and money.In exemplification, I explain how industrial capitalism has brought about the rise of mass production and mass markets, enabling the market system to expand its influence. Secondly, I will illustrate how industrial capitalism has changed the social relations of production, as well as the social organization of work, resulting in class struggle and socio-economic stratification in history. Lastly, I touch on the changes in norms and cul ture within institutions due to industrial production and capitalism.For the purpose of this paper, I define industrial production as production brought about by mechanized technology and industrious labor in centralized locations. Capitalism is defined as a system of profit making commerce made possible by the usage of money, decentralized circulation of capital and the market exchange of commodities. I use the term industrial capitalism to denote the amalgamation of both forces. The Role and Nature of Markets in History It is my contention that industrial production has changed the role and nature of markets in history, placing it in the centre of society and economy.It is true that industrial capitalism presupposes the existence of a market system. However, the market system was never the dominant system of social control until the development of isolated markets by mercantilist means, and subsequently the transnational interaction and proliferation of markets into a market econo my, brought about by industrialization in the 18thC. It is due to this transcendence of boundaries and displacement of market activity that gives rise to the â€Å"market† as an abstract mechanism.According to Polyani, before the rise of markets, the society organizes itself via systems of redistribution, house-holding and reciprocity, of which operates on non-economic motives like social prestige and kinship (Polyani 1944: 46-58). After the rise of markets with long distance and local trade, markets have started to take on a more important role in providing necessities; however, they did not function for a majority of the population, who were still dependent upon common exchange and subsistence systems.Thereafter, mercantilism created isolated national markets which consolidated local economic activity and increased trade. However, it was not until the Industrial Revolution in the mid 18thC that the market system became the main driver of social change across different count ries through the creation of mass markets. The industrial revolution has brought about new forms of technology and power, transformed modes of production and created factories as centralized locations for mechanized production to take place.Mass production techniques like specialization, standardization, time-discipline, rational capital accounting and centralization allow for production costs to decrease with volume, thus generating a high amount of output, providing goods more cheaply than one could have done outside of the factory. As a result, people buy their essentials from these mass markets rather than produce by themselves. Also, they produce solely for the market, deriving income to purchase other goods in the circulation of commodities.Moreover, with industrial capitalism, the market mechanism has also come to allocate factors of production such as land, labor and money, which according to Polyani were not real commodities, but merely have exchange value because they beco me privately owned by use of legal contracts and sales (Polyani 1944: 68-76). Since then, mass markets have come to synchronize most economic activities like consumption, production, distribution and even finance in the most efficient fashion (Swedberg 2005:238-240).These markets become far reaching and displaced in light of industrial capitalism because of communicative and transport technology, the mobility of money and relations of free trade, which re-defined the notion of markets from a place to an abstract network of actors across national boundaries. Also, the nature of markets has changed from being state-controlled to being self-regulating. The market system becomes the center of economic and social life as it coordinates most economic activities not by state regulation but by economic instruments like the price mechanism, supply and demand aggregates.Social Relations of Production and Organization of Work Industrial capitalism has, with the change in material means of prod uction, brought about a change in the social relations of production and organization of work. In capitalistic societies, instead of directly interacting with nature in production, human beings depend on each other by exchanging their assets in place of producing for subsistence. Hence, they inevitably enter into social relations of production between those who own the means of production (capitalist) and those who do not but are economically compelled to sell their labor power (worker) for wages.In the circulation of capital, surplus value can be derived from the difference between capital invested and capital retrieved because capital (such as land, factory and machinery), only when combined with labor, transforms products to sell for higher exchange values, thereby generating surplus value and profit. This circulation of capital is durable because capitalists aim to invest their capital to make even more profits while workers can only increase their wages by working harder or by investing in their skills.Since then, the relationship between capitalists have become increasingly competitive due to the drive for profits while the worker-capitalist relation has replaced family (sexual division of labor) as the primary relation of production. According to Marx, as the ownership of means of production is exclusive and alienable, the society becomes separated into two distinct classes – the bourgeoisie (capitalist) and the proletarian (or worker), where between them is a relationship of domination and exploitation.Marx observed that the capitalists tend to exploit the workers by privately appropriating the surplus value produced by the workers, giving them much less than the use value of their time and effort invested in production (Marx 1848: 23). Also, the exploitation goes further by manifesting itself in the working conditions of factories, where workers were forced to work for long hours and children were also engaged as child labor. The exploitation a nd domination over workers exists because of the profit motive of decreasing costs and increasing revenue, as well as the fact that workers have less argaining power over their jobs than their employers. Capitalism has also re-defined the social organization of work by the formation of labor markets and complex division of labor. Prior to the onset of industrial capitalism, work was just defined as any effortful activity which attributes use value to commodities. However, with industrial capitalism, the formation of labor markets constituting workers, employers, jobs and networks is possible, and they function to allocate labor resources and allow capitalists to negotiate labor price and working conditions.Here, there is a clear demarcation of what is considered paid â€Å"work† and what lies outside of the labor market in the informal economy. Within the labor market, the exchange value of labor depends on the quantity and quality of labor, which denotes different labor proc esses and skills. The differentiation in wages is due to the complex division of labor brought about by industrial capitalism.Unlike the simple division of labor, where society is categorized into different occupations as in craftmanship, the capitalistic industry has a tendency to control and divide the mass production process into many simple tasks which all unskilled workers are capable of accomplishing. Workers are subdivided into different capabilities and made to specialize in simple tasks to be able to perform quickly and productively. This organization of work greatly improves the efficiency of the system, bringing costs down with more units of production.As seen in the Fordist model of mass production, workers as such are being â€Å"deskilled† and made interchangeable to the extent that they can be fired or hired according to production requirements (Womack 1990: 19-46). Thus, the market value of such menial labor is very low as opposed to professions (doctors) and skilled labor (technicians). The way work is being socially organized into skilled and unskilled labor has thus brought about socio-economic stratification in production relations. Marx has criticized this form of organization as being â€Å"alienating†, especially for the menial workers.As workers are being made interchangeable by the subdivided nature of production process, their labor is being looked upon only as a commodity, at their employer’s disposal. The worker loses control over his produce, the work process and his ability to creatively express himself. Moreover, their menial labor becomes cheapened in the process of unemployment and labor surplus. On the other hand, professionals are able to safeguard their interests by exclusive job administration channels, keeping their wages high due to marketable specialized knowledge.As a result, socio-economic stratification has also become defined by consumption relations such as occupational prestige and status group s. Norms and Culture Lastly, it is clear that industrial capitalism has brought about important changes in norms and culture. Most explicitly, industrial capitalism has changed the culture of work in the society. Prior to this time, work was characterized by disparate tasks that one is required to do in the day, and is oriented to what is necessary to be attended to. There is little divide between work and life.In industrial-capitalistic societies, work is characterized by a series of jobs which need to be synchronized in terms of sequence and speed. Time-discipline is important for work in the capitalist economies because productivity and time are highly correlated (Thompson 1967, 60:61). People are expected to use time allocated for work efficiently and solely for work. As the stimulus for work has changed from subsistence to wage incentives, there is potential of increasing wages by putting in more effort put into work.Thus, as competition for jobs and within jobs increase, peopl e are pushed to work harder and longer in their jobs. Also, in the 18thC, industrial capitalism has led to the trend of rapid urbanization due to rural urban migration and international migration in seek of factory jobs. This has led to a major restructuration of society within countries like England, where the working class poor tend to congregate near the city centre for employment and the more affluent middle class tend to decentralize away from these city centers, where living conditions are bad.The result is a case of socio-economic polarization within cities, where differences in standards of living are stark between gated communities and urban slums. In all, industrial capitalism tend to generate disparate levels of wealth and poverty amongst the working and capitalist classes. Lastly, industrial capitalism is likely to produce changes in habits and lifestyle which are oriented towards the market. The culture of consumerism is prevalent in many industrial and post-industrial societies, brought about by both producers and consumers.Producers aim to increase the capital return from their investment by either catering to existing needs or by creating new needs and wants. With the use of marketing strategies and production technology, they are able to sell their products at a high profit margin. Consumers, on the other hand, are faced with the proliferation of goods and services available at competitive prices. With the wages they have earned, they are able to afford more goods at a lower price. In all, this paper contends that industrial production and capitalism are major drivers of social change in three ways.Firstly, industrial capitalism has changed the role and nature of markets in history, from an auxiliary mechanism to the main instrument of social coordination. Secondly, industrial capitalism has revolutionized the social relations of production, from humanity’s struggle with nature to dependency on each other. It has also changed the social organization of work, by re-defining what is work and by organizing work into skilled and non-skilled categories with varying consequences. Thirdly, industrial capitalism has influenced the norms and culture of society through â€Å"industriousness†, urbanization and consumerism. (1991 Words)